500: Christian History - David, Patron Saint of Wales

*Saint David, the patron saint of Wales, was born around this year.

Saint David (Welsh: Dewi Sant; c. 500 – c. 589) was a Welsh bishop of Menevia during the 6th century; he was later regarded as a saint and as the patron saint of Wales. David was a native of Wales, and a relatively large amount of information is known about his life. However, his birth date is still uncertain, as suggestions range from 462 to 512. The Welsh annals place his death 569 years after the birth of Christ, but Phillimore's dating revised this to 601.

Many of the traditional tales about David are found in the Buchedd Dewi, a hagiography written by Rhygyfarch in the late 11th century. Rhygyfarch claimed it was based on documents found in the cathedral archives. Modern historians are sceptical of some of its claims: one of Rhygyfarch's aims was to establish some independence for the Welsh church, which had refused the Roman rite until the 8th century and now sought a metropolitan status equal to that of Canterbury. (This may apply to the supposed pilgrimage to Jerusalem where he was anointed as an archbishop by the patriarch).

He became renowned as a teacher and preacher, founding monastic settlements and churches in Wales, Dumnonia, and Brittany. St David's Cathedral stands on the site of the monastery he founded in the Glyn Rhosyn valley of Pembrokeshire. He rose to a bishopric and presided over two synods against Pelagianism: the first at Brefi around 560 and the second at Caerleon (the "Synod of Victory") around 569.

His best-known miracle is said to have taken place when he was preaching in the middle of a large crowd at the Synod of Brefi: the village of Llanddewi Brefi stands on the spot where the ground on which he stood is reputed to have risen up to form a small hill. A white dove, which became his emblem, was seen settling on his shoulder. David is said to have denounced Pelagianism during this incident and he was declared archbishop by popular acclaim according to Rhygyfarch, bringing about the retirement of Dubricius. David's metropolitan status as an archbishopric was later supported by Bernard, Bishop of St. David's, Geoffrey of Monmouth and Gerald of Wales.

The Monastic Rule of David prescribed that monks had to pull the plough themselves without draught animals, must drink only water and eat only bread with salt and herbs, and spend the evenings in prayer, reading and writing. No personal possessions were allowed: even to say "my book" was considered an offence. He lived a simple life and practised asceticism, teaching his followers to refrain from eating meat and drinking beer. His symbol, also the symbol of Wales, is the leek (this largely comes from a reference in Shakespeare's Henry V, Act V scene 1).

Rhygyfarch counted Glastonbury Abbey among the churches David founded. Around forty years later William of Malmesbury, believing the Abbey older, said that David visited Glastonbury only to rededicate the Abbey and to donate a travelling altar including a great sapphire. He had had a vision of Jesus who said that "the church had been dedicated long ago by Himself in honour of His Mother, and it was not seemly that it should be re-dedicated by human hands". So David instead commissioned an extension to be built to the abbey, east of the Old Church. (The dimensions of this extension given by William were verified archaeologically in 1921). One manuscript indicates that a sapphire altar was among the items King Henry VIII confiscated from the abbey at its dissolution a thousand years later.

It is claimed that David lived for over 100 years, and that he died on a Tuesday March 1 (now Saint David's Day). It is generally accepted that this was around 590, however, March 1 actually fell on a Tuesday in 589. The monastery is said to have been "filled with angels as Christ received his soul." His last words to his followers were in a sermon on the previous Sunday. The Welsh Life of St David gives these as: "Bydwch lawen a chedwch ych ffyd a'ch cret, a gwnewch y petheu bychein a glywyssawch ac a welsawch gennyf i. A mynheu a gerdaf y fford yd aeth an tadeu idi", which translates as, "Be joyful, and keep your faith and your creed, and do the little things that you have seen me do and heard about. I will walk the path that our fathers have trod before us." "Do ye the little things in life" ("Gwnewch y pethau bychain mewn bywyd") is today a very well known phrase in Welsh.

David was buried at Saint David's Cathedral at Saint David's, Pembrokeshire, where his shrine was a popular place of pilgrimage throughout the Middle Ages. During the 10th and 11th centuries the Cathedral was regularly raided by Vikings, who removed the shrine from the church and stripped off the precious metal adornments. In 1275, a new shrine was constructed, the ruined base of which remains to this day, which was originally surmounted by an ornamental wooden canopy with murals of Saint David, Saint Patrick and Saint Denis of France. The relics of Saint David and Saint Justinian were kept in a portable casket on the stone base of the shrine. It was at this shrine that Edward I came to pray in 1284. During the reformation Bishop Barlow (1536–48), a staunch Protestant, stripped the shrine of its jewels and confiscated the relics of David and Justinian.

David's popularity in Wales is shown by the Armes Prydein Fawr, of around 930, a popular poem which prophesied that in the future, when all might seem lost, the Cymry (the Welsh people) would unite behind the standard of David to defeat the English; "A lluman glân Dewi a ddyrchafant" ("And they will raise the pure banner of Dewi"). Unlike many contemporary "saints" of Wales, David was officially recognized at the Vatican by Pope Callixtus II in 1120, thanks to the work of Bernard, Bishop of Saint David's.

David's life and teachings have inspired a choral work by Welsh composer Karl Jenkins, Dewi Sant. It is a seven-movement work best known for the classical crossover series Adiemus, which intersperses movements reflecting the themes of David's last sermon with those drawing from three Psalms. An oratorio by another Welsh composer Arwel Hughes, also entitled Dewi Sant, was composed in 1950.

Saint David is also thought to be associated with corpse candles, lights that would warn of the imminent death of a member of the community. The story goes that David prayed for his people to have some warning of their death, so that they could prepare themselves. In a vision, David's wish was granted and told that from then on, people who lived in the land of Dewi Sant (Saint David) "would be forewarned by the dim light of mysterious tapers when and where the death might be expected." The color and/or size of the tapers indicated whether the person to die would be a woman, man, or child.

In the 2004 edition of the Roman Martyrology, David is listed under 1 March with the Latin name Dávidis. He is recognized as bishop of Menevia in Wales who governed his monastery following the example of the Eastern Fathers. Through his leadership, many monks went forth to evangelize Wales, Ireland, Cornwall and Armorica (Brittany and surrounding provinces).

501: Notable Births - Xiao Tong

Xiao Tong (traditional Chinese: 蕭統; simplified Chinese: 萧统; pinyin: Xiāo Tǒng; Wade–Giles: Hsiao T'ung, 501–531 CE), courtesy name Deshi (德施), formally Crown Prince Zhaoming (昭明太子, literally "Accomplished and Understanding Crown Prince"), was a Crown Prince of the Chinese Liang Dynasty, posthumously honored as Emperor Zhaoming (昭明皇帝). He was the oldest son of Emperor Wu of Liang, (personal name Xiao Yan), whom he predeceased. Xiao Tong's enduring legacy is the literary compendium Wen Xuan (Literary Anthology).

Xiao Tong was born to Xiao Yan, then a Southern Qi general nearing final victory in a civil war against the cruel and violent emperor Xiao Baojuan, in winter 501. He was born at Xiao Yan's power base ofXiangyang, to Xiao Yan's concubine Ding Lingguang (丁令光). (Xiao Yan's wife Chi Hui (郗徽) had died in 499, and from that point on he had only concubines and never made any of them his wife.) After Xiao Yan's victory later in 501, he forced Emperor He of Southern Qi, whom he had supported as a rival claimant to the Southern Qi throne, to yield the throne to him in 502, ending Southern Qi and starting Liang Dynasty (as its Emperor Wu). The officials requested that he make Xiao Tong, then an infant, the crown prince, and while Emperor Wu initially declined on account that the empire had not been pacified, he did so in winter 502, when Xiao Tong was only one year old. After Xiao Tong was created crown prince, his mother Consort Ding, while not made empress, was given a special status co-equal with her son.

Xiao Tong was said to be intelligent, kind, and obedient to his parents from his childhood. As per customs of the time, in 506, he was housed in the Yongfu Mansion (永福省), the residence for the crown prince, in his childhood, but he missed his parents, and so every few days or so Emperor Wu would spend several days at Yongfu Mansion. (Whether Consort Ding did the same is not recorded in history.) In 515, he went through his rite of passage and was declared an adult, and Emperor Wu bestowed him a crown.

As Emperor Wu was an avid Buddhist, Xiao Tong also became one, and he studied sutras intently, often inviting Buddhist monks to his palace to preach and to discuss Buddhist doctrines. After his rite of passage, Emperor Wu also began to gradually have him handle more and more matters of state, becoming less involved in the day-to-day operations of the empire.

In 522, Xiao Tong's uncle Xiao Dan (蕭憺) the Prince of Shixing died. By custom, a crown prince would not hold a mourning period for an uncle, but Xiao Tong believed this custom to be unfilial, and therefore requested the officials to further discuss the matter. After the official Liu Xiaochuo (劉孝綽) suggested that he hold a one-month mourning period, he agreed, and in fact made this a precedent for the Liang Dynasty.

During this period, Xiao Tong and others compiled a compendium of ancient poetry and texts, which he referred to as Wenxuan (文選, "selected texts"), which was later known after his death, by his posthumous name, as the Zhaoming Wenxuan (昭明文選). It is a work of historical importance, as it preserved many ancient texts which otherwise might have been lost.

In 526, Consort Ding grew ill, and Xiao Tong spent his days attending to her without rest. She died in winter 526, and Xiao Tong was so saddened that he ate nothing. It was after Emperor Wu tried to console him by pointing out that he should not harm his body and that he still had his father that Xiao Tong began to take porridge, but he ate nothing further. He was described to be fairly obese until that point, but he lost a lot of weight during the mourning period for Consort Ding.

The death of Consort Ding brought about a disastrous effect in Xiao Tong's relationship with his father, however. Xiao Tong sought out an appropriate place to bury Consort Ding, but while he was doing so, a land owner bribed the eunuch Yu Sanfu (俞三副) into convincing Emperor Wu that that piece of land would bring good fortune for the emperor, and so Emperor Wu bought the land and buried Consort Ding there. However, once Consort Ding was buried, a Taoist monk informed Xiao Tong that he believed that the land would bring ill fortune for Consort Ding's oldest son—Xiao Tong. Xiao Tong therefore allowed the monk to bury a few items intended to dissolve the ill fortune, such as wax ducks, at the position reserved for the oldest son. Later on, when one of Xiao Tong's attendants, Bao Miaozhi (鮑邈之), was squeezed out of Xiao Tong's inner circles by another attendant, Wei Ya (魏雅), he, in resentment, reported to Emperor Wu that Wei had carried out sorcery on Xiao Tong's behalf. When Emperor Wu investigated, waxed ducks were found, and Emperor Wu became surprised and angry, and wanted to investigate further. He only stopped the investigation when he was advised to do so by the prime minister Xu Mian, executing only the Taoist monk who had suggested the burial of wax ducks. Xiao Tong became humiliated in the affair, and was never able to clear himself completely in his father's eyes.

Xiao Tong died in 531. Even when he was very ill, because he was afraid to make Emperor Wu be concerned about him, he still personally wrote submissions to his father. After his death, Emperor Wu personally attended his wake and buried him at a tomb appropriate for an emperor. He also summoned Xiao Tong's oldest son, Xiao Huan (蕭歡) the Duke of Huarong back to the capital Jiankang, preparing to create Xiao Huan crown prince to replace his father. However, still resentful over the wax duck affair, he hesitated for days without carrying out the creation, and finally did not do so. Instead, against popular opinion, he created Xiao Tong's younger brother, also by Consort Ding, Xiao Gang crown prince. In 551, when Xiao Gang, then emperor (as Emperor Jianwen) but under control and virtual house arrest by the general Hou Jing, Hou, to try to show off his power, deposed Emperor Jianwen and made Xiao Tong's grandson Xiao Dong the Prince of Yuzhang emperor. It was then that Xiao Tong was posthumously honored an emperor.

Xiao Tong is survived by his great literary compendium, the Wenxuan, an anthology of literature divided into 60 chapters. Chapter 29 preserves the Nineteen Old Poems,^[1] a major source for early Classical Chinese poetry. Xiao appears to consider these to be anonymous works, a view supported by modern scholarship, despite the claims of Xu Ling in his New Songs from the Jade Terrace.^[2]

The Wen Xuan (Chinese: 文選; literally "Selections of Literature"), or Selections of Refined Literature, is one of the earliest existing anthologies of Chinese poetry and literature. It is a "selection" of what were judged to be the best pieces from the Qin and Han dynasties to AD 500.^[1] It was compiled around AD 520 during the Liang dynasty in the Southern and Northern dynasties by Xiao Tong, the eldest son ofEmperor Wu of Liang, and a group of scholars he had assembled. After Xiao Tong's death he was given the posthumous name Zhao Ming 昭明 (Classical Chinese: "outstanding", "remarkable"), and so the collection came to be known as the "Zhao Ming Wen Xuan".^[2] It is composed of 60 sections, each containing a different form or type of belles-lettres, and is the largest single collection of fu poetry.

Study of the Wen Xuan rivalled that of the Five Classics during the Tang Dynasty and enjoyed incredible popularity. By the Northern Song Dynasty, however, attitudes had shifted, and the phrase "The Wen Xuan'srot makes good scholars not" became common.^{[n 1]} Throughout the Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, and Qing Dynasty, study of the Wen Xuan progressed very little from where it was in the Tang Dynasty.

Three volumes of the first English translation of the Wen Xuan have been published by Professor David Knechtges of the University of Washington, and additional volumes are forthcoming.

The Wen Xuan (Japanese: Mon-zen) was transmitted to Japan sometime after its initial publication and had become required reading for the Japanese aristocracy by the Heian period. Admired for its beauty, many terms from the Wen Xuan made their way into Japanese as loanwords and are still used.

501: Notable Births - Lou Zhaojun

Lou Zhaojun, the Empress Dowager of China, was born.

Empress Dowager Lou Zhaojun (501–562), formally Empress Ming (literally "the understanding empress"), was an empress dowager of the Chinese dynasty Northern Qi. She was the wife of Gao Huan, the paramount general of Northern Wei and its branch successor state Eastern Wei, and during Gao Huan's lifetime was already influential on the political scene. After Gao Huan's death, she continued to exert influence through the regency of her son Gao Cheng, and then as empress dowager after another son Gao Yang seized the throne from Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei and established Northern Qi (as Emperor Wenxuan). She continued to serve as grand empress dowager through the reigns of Gao Yang's son Emperor Fei, and then again as empress dowager during the reigns of two more of her own sons, Emperor Xiaozhao and Emperor Wucheng.

Lou Zhaojun was born in 501, as the daughter of a rich merchant, Lou Gan, and she grew up in Pingcheng (in modern Datong, Shanxi), the old capital of Northern Wei. In her youth, she was described to be intelligent and resolute, and when she saw Gao Huan, who was then too poor even to own a horse, serving as a soldier and standing guard on Pingcheng's wall, she became so impressed by him that she, against customs of the times that women's marriages were to be arranged by parents, became resolved to marry him, sending her servant girls to Gao Huan to deliver messages and monetary gifts for her. Her parents therefore became forced to allow the marriage, and they were married.

Lou Zhaojun was of Xianbei ethnicity while Gao Huan was Han Chinese. In 521, she gave birth to a son, Gao Cheng. (She would eventually have six sons—Gao Cheng, Gao Yang, Gao Yan, Gao Dan, Gao Yu, and Gao Ji -- and two daughters, the eventual empresses for Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei and Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei.) It was only after their marriage that Gao Huan could even afford a horse and was able to become an imperial messenger, delivering the governmental reports between Pingcheng and the new capital Luoyang. Once, when Gao Huan was severely battered, she cared for him all day and night and nursed him back to health.

In 525, when large portions of Northern Wei territory was overrun by agrarian rebels, Gao Huan, taking his family (then apparently made up of Lady Lou, Gao Cheng, and their oldest daughter), joined the rebellion of one of the major rebels, Du Luozhou. Subsequently they became unimpressed with Du's behavior, fled from Du's camp, and joined another rebel leader, Ge Rong. However, Gao Huan eventually left Ge as well and joined the army of the Northern Wei general, and Xiongnu tribal leader, Erzhu Rong.

Erzhu was initially unimpressed with Gao and did not give him great responsibilities. It was around this time that the family's wealth was so drained that Lady Lou herself made boots personally out of horse skin. Eventually, though, Gao's talent impressed Erzhu, and he became one of Erzhu's key commanders in his campaigns, first to seize power at Luoyang in 528, then on his campaign to destroy the rebels and reunify the empire. Lady Lou's brother Lou Zhao eventually became a key commander under Gao Huan. Gao Huan was said to also often consult Lady Lou herself for her views on important decisions.

In 530, Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei, suspicious that Erzhu Rong would eventually seize the throne, ambushed him in the palace and killed him. Erzhu Rong's relatives, led by his cousin Erzhu Shilong and nephew Erzhu Zhao, rose against Emperor Xiaozhuang, defeating and killing him later in the year. Gao Huan did not break with the Erzhus at this time, but was largely uninvolved in their campaign against Emperor Xiaozhuang, although Gao Huan did aid Erzhu Zhao later in the year, after Emperor Xiaozhuang's death, in Erzhu Zhao's campaign against the general Gedouling Bufan, who was loyal to Emperor Xiaozhuang.

Under the instigation of the Erzhus, Emperor Jiemin of Northern Wei, whom the Erzhus had made emperor, made Gao Huan the Prince of Bohai, and Lady Lou thereafter carried the title the Princess of Bohai. In 531, seeing that the people were disappointed at the level of corruption shown by the Erzhus, Gao Huan declared a rebellion against them, defeating them in 532 and deposing Emperor Jiemin, whom the Erzhus had made emperor. Gao Huan made Yuan Xiu the Prince of Pingyang emperor (as Emperor Xiaowu), and gave Princess Lou's oldest daughter to Emperor Xiaowu in marriage as his empress.

Emperor Xiaowu, however, strained to free himself from Gao Huan, and their relationship soon deteriorated, as Emperor Xiaowu entered into alliances with the independent generals Yuwen Tai, who controlled the western provinces, and Heba Sheng, who controlled the southern provinces, against Gao Huan. In 534, when Emperor Xiaowu secretly prepared to attack Gao Huan, Gao Huan saw through his façade, and marched on Luoyang. Emperor Xiaowu fled to Yuwen Tai's territory, without taking Empress Gao with him. Gao Huan declared Yuan Shanjian, the son of Emperor Xiaowu's cousin Yuan Dan, the Prince of Qinghe, emperor (as Emperor Xiaojing), and Northern Wei was divided in two, Eastern Wei under Emperor Xiaojing and Western Wei under Emperor Xiaowu.
Lou Zhaojun supported and assisted Gao Huan when he married more women, wanting to expand his power.

An incident involving Gao Cheng soon threatened to undermine not only his position as Gao Huan's heir apparent but Princess Lou. In 535, Gao Cheng was discovered to have had an affair with Gao Huan's concubine Zheng Dache. Gao Huan was so angry that he caned Gao Cheng 100 times and put him under house arrest, and also refused to see Princess Lou. At that time, his favorite concubine was Erzhu Rong's daughter and Emperor Xiaozhuang's former empress Erzhu Ying'e, whose son Gao You he now considered making heir apparent to replace Gao Cheng. Only at the intercession of Gao Huan's friend Sima Ziru -- who first reminded Gao Huan of Princess Lou's contributions to his success, as well as Lou Zhao's, and then forced the main witness to the affair, Lady Zheng's servant girl, to commit suicide—were Gao Cheng and Princess Lou able to remain in their positions. Still, Princess Lou and Gao Cheng submitted themselves to humiliating apologies to Gao Huan, where they knelt at each step as they approached Gao Huan after Gao Huan went to see them.

After the incident, however, Gao Huan appeared to continue to honor Princess Lou and turn to her for advice. For example, in 537, in the aftermaths of Gao Huan's defeat against Yuwen Tai at Shawan (in modern Weinan, Shaanxi), the general Hou Jing suggested making an ambush against Yuwen's own camp; it was Princess Lou who advised Gao Huan against such action, noting that if Hou actually captured Yuwen, Hou would never return.

In 539, Princess Lou's second daughter married Empress Xiaojing as his empress.

In the Fall of 545, due to an alliance between Western Wei and Rouran to attack Eastern Wei, Gao Huan sued for peace with Rouran by requesting a marriage between a daughter of Rouran's Chiliantoubingdoufa Khan Yujiulü Anagui and Gao Cheng. Yujiulü Anagui refused, stating that it would only be sufficient if Gao Huan himself married her. Gao Huan himself initially refused, but Princess Lou, Gao Cheng, and the general Wei Jing all persuaded him otherwise, and he married Yujiulü Anagui's daughter, referring to her as the Princess Ruru. To facilitate this marriage, Princess Lou moved out of the mansion (and in gratitude, Gao Huan himself knelt down to Princess Lou to thank her), but Gao Huan and Princess Lou were not formally divorced, although, at Princess Lou's own request (arguing that the Princess Ruru would realize what was happening), Gao Huan did not visit her.

In 547, Gao Huan died, and Gao Cheng took over as regent. Princess Lou thereafter carried the title of Princess Dowager of Bohai. In 549, Gao Cheng was in turn assassinated by his slave Lan Jing, and Princess Dowager Lou's second son Gao Yang assumed the regency. In 550, despite Princess Lou's reservations, Gao Yang had Emperor Xiaojing yield the throne to him, ending Eastern Wei and starting Northern Qi (as its Emperor Wenxuan). Emperor Wenxuan honored Princess Lou as empress dowager.

During the reign of Emperor Wenxuan—whom Empress Dowager Lou had previously considered to be unintelligent but whose reign initially was one characterized by diligence—Empress Dowager Lou did not directly assert authority, but was fairly influential on her son, who was devoted to her. However, later in his reign, he began to act cruelly and bizarrely, apparently fueled by his alcoholism. In an incident during this period, angry at his alcoholism, she battered him with her staff, stating, "What kind of father begat this kind of son?" He responded irreverently: "I will marry this mother to a barbarian!" In anger, her expression turned stern. In order to try to induce her to smile, Emperor Wenxuan crawled on the ground, but as he did, he flipped her bed over, causing her to fall and suffer an injury. Once he became sober, he greatly regretted his action, and he set a fire, intending to jump into it. Alarmed, she grabbed him and forced a smile, stating, "You were simply drunk." He still prostrated himself and ordered his father Gao Huan's distant cousin Gao Guiyan the Prince of Pingqin to batter him severely with a staff—stating to Gao Guiyan that if Gao Guiyan could not cause him to bleed, he would kill Gao Guiyan. However, Empress Dowager Lou grabbed him and would not permit it to happen. He still insisted on being at least battered on his feet 50 times, and then still apologized profusely to her and swore to abstain from alcohol. However, 10 days later, he resumed drinking.

In another incident involving Emperor Wenxuan's errant behavior, he had considered seizing his wife Empress Li Zu'e's older sister as a concubine, after forcing her into an affair with him, so he summoned her husband Yuan Ang to the palace and fired arrows at him, eventually killing him. Empress Li mourned greatly and offered to yield the empress title to her sister. Empress Dowager Lou interceded against Emperor Wenxuan's taking her sister, and so Emperor Wenxuan did not do so.

Another son of Empress Dowager Lou's, Gao Yan the Prince of Changshan, was one of the few officials who dared to speak to Emperor Wenxuan to try to get him to change his behavior. While at times Emperor Wenxuan would listen to Gao Yan's advice, in one instance he angrily battered Gao Yan such that Gao Yan suffered a serious injury. In anger, Gao Yan went on hunger strike, and when Empress Dowager Lou saw this, she went on hunger strike as well. Emperor Wenxuan, fearful of what might happen to both Gao Yan and Empress Dowager Lou, allowed Gao Yan's associate Wang Xi, whom Emperor Wenxuan had earlier ordered to forced labor, to be freed from the labor so that he could encourage Gao Yan to end his hunger strike. Wang did so, and Gao Yan relented.
In 558, Emperor Wenxuan died from a severe alcoholism-related illness. He was succeeded by his crown prince Gao Yin, who took the throne as Emperor Fei. Emperor Fei honored Empress Dowager Lou as grand empress dowager.

Grand Empress Dowager Lou initially had considered trying to make Gao Yan emperor instead, but was prevented from doing so by officials loyal to Emperor Wenxuan's choice of his son Emperor Fei as crown prince. Still, she asserted more authority than she did during Emperor Wenxuan's reign. For example, she had long hated Gao Huan's son by his concubine Lady You, Gao Shi (高湜) the Prince of Gaoyang, as Gao Shi had received Emperor Wenxuan's favor by flattering him and had often been put in charge by Emperor Wenxuan of battering other imperial princes. In spring 560, Gao Shi was accused of crimes, and Grand Empress Dowager Lou took this opportunity to order that he be battered severely. Gao Shi eventually died from his injuries.

Meanwhile, the prime minister Yang Yin -- a son-in-law of Grand Empress Dowager Lou, as he had married the former wife of Eastern Wei's Emperor Xiaojing after Emperor Wenxuan killed him around the new year 552—became suspicious that Gao Yan or another son of Grand Empress Dowager Lou, Gao Dan the Prince of Changguang would try to seize the throne. Yang's associates Kezhuhun Tianhe and Yan Zixian were even considering killing the two princes and putting Grand Empress Dowager Lou under house arrest and transferring her authority to Emperor Fei's mother Empress Dowager Li. However, what they considered were leaked to Grand Empress Dowager Lou by Empress Dowager Li's lady in waiting Li Changyi, and the two princes took preemptive action, ambushing Yang and his associates and forcing them into the palace. Yang and his associates were executed, and power fell into the hands of Gao Yan. (Despite Grand Empress Dowager Lou's opposition of Yang's plans, however, she realized that he was acting out of his loyalty to Emperor Fei, and she personally mourned him, and because before his death, one of Yang's eyes had been battered out of its socket, she made an eye of gold and pressed it into Yang's eyesocket.)

Later that year, Gao Yan decided to take the throne. When he initially reported this intention to Grand Empress Dowager Lou, she disagreed with it, as she believed that this would be seen as usurpation. However, she eventually agreed, and she issued an edict deposing Emperor Fei, making him the Prince of Ji'nan instead, and making Gao Yan emperor (as Emperor Xiaozhao). She specifically instructed Emperor Xiaozhao, however, "Do not let anything happen to your nephew." With the emperor again being her son rather than grandson, she became known again simply as empress dowager.

Emperor Xiaozhao was considered filially pious, and when once Empress Dowager Lou became ill, he attended her for 40 days without resting. On another occasion, when she was suffering from unbearable chest pain, he inflicted pain on his own palms—then considered a way to transfer pain from her to him.

In 561, Emperor Xiaozhao, fearful of astrological signs that appear to indicate that the former Emperor Fei would return to the throne, put him to death. When soon thereafter, Emperor Xiaozhao had a riding accident and suffered a severe injury, Empress Dowager Lou attended to him, but as she did, she asked where the Prince of Ji'nan was. When Emperor Xiaozhao was unable to answer, she angrily stated, "Is it not that you killed him? You did not listen to me, and you deserve to die." She walked out without returning. He died soon thereafter, after issuing an edict passing the throne to Gao Dan, who then took the throne as Emperor Wucheng. Empress Dowager Lou continued to be empress dowager.

In summer 562, Empress Dowager Lou died. Emperor Wucheng was unwilling to change to white mourning clothes, and continued to wear his red robe, and he also continued to feast and play music, throwing the white mourning clothes away. When his trusted advisor He Shikai requested that the music be stopped, Emperor Wucheng was sufficiently angered that he slapped He.

Later on, Empress Dowager Lou was buried with her husband Gao Huan, with honors due an empress.

*****

501: Notable Births - Khosrau I

In 501, Khosrau I, the greatest of the Sassanid Emperors of Iran, was born.

 

Khosrau I (also called Khosrow I, Chosroes I, Kasra in classical sources, most commonly known in Persian as Anushirvan or Anushirwan, Persian: a-nushak ravan, meaning the undiminishing soul), also known as Anushirawan the Just (Anushiravan-e-dadgar) (r. 531–579), was the favorite son and successor of Kavadh I (488–531), twentieth Sassanid Emperor (Persian: Shahanshah, Great King) of Persia, and the most famous and celebrated of the Sassanid Emperors.

He laid the foundations of many cities and opulent palaces, and oversaw the repair of trade roads as well as the building of numerous bridges and dams. During Khosrau I's ambitious reign, art and science flourished in Persia and the Sassanid Empire reached its peak of glory and prosperity. His rule was preceded by his father's and succeeded by Hormizd IV. "Khosrau of the immortal soul" is one of the most popular emperors in Iranian culture and literature and, outside of Iran, his name became, like that of Caesar in the history of Rome, a designation of the Sasanian kings.

Khosrau I, byname Khosrau Anūshirvan (Persian: “Khosrau of the Immortal Soul”), or Khosrau the Just (b. 501 - d. 579), was remembered as a great reformer and patron of the arts and scholarship.

Little is known of the early life of Khosrau beyond legends. One story says that when Khosrau’s father, King Kavadh, took refuge with the Hephthalites, eastern neighbors of Iran, on the way (near the town of Nishapur) he married a peasant’s daughter, who gave birth to Khosrau. At his father’s death, Khosrau did not at first succeed him, but in a struggle for the throne he was successful and put to death his brothers. At the end of his father’s reign, great social disorders had occurred because of a religious revolution of a sect called the Mazdakites. Khosroau first restored order and then launched reforms to transform the declining Sasanian empire.

The reform of taxation was the most important of his actions, and it was probably copied from the Roman system inaugurated by the emperor Diocletian. Previously in the Sasanian empire taxes had been levied on the yield of land. Khosroau established a fixed sum rather than a yearly variation. Other taxes were introduced that brought stability to the income of the state and were also fairer to those who paid the taxes. Khosrau’s program of taxes lasted into Islāmic times.

Khosrau also reorganized the Sasanian bureaucracy, and the system of ministries, or divans, under a prime minister is said to have been initiated by him. He was fortunate during most of his reign in having a capable prime minister called Bozorgmehr, who became famous in story and legend for his wisdom and abilities.

Under Khosrau the process of decentralization of the power of the monarch was reversed, and the lower aristocracy, or knights, called dihqans, grew in importance at the expense of the great feudal lords, who had been more powerful under Khosrau’s predecessors. It is difficult to know how many changes really can be attributed to Khosrau’s reign and how many are arbitrarily assigned to him because of his place in history. Whether the religiously sanctioned division of society into priests, warriors, bureaucracy, and common folk was codified under his reign, as claimed by some sources, is difficult to determine.

Khosrau also reorganized the army and appointed four chief commanders to guard the four frontiers of Iran. On the frontier against the Byzantines and their Arab allies in the Syrian Desert, against the peoples of the steppes of southern Russia at the town of Derbent between the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea, and to the east of the sea in the present Turkmen steppes, Khosrau built defensive walls. The army, however, did not remain on the defensive, for Khosrau’s reign is noted for his wars against the Byzantines. In 540, Antioch was conquered and held for a short time by Khosrau. He brought many prisoners from Antioch and settled them in a new town near his capital of Ctesiphon, modeled on old Antioch. In the east, Khosrau, in alliance with the Turks, a new power in Central Asia, crushed the Hephthalites, and he established a hegemony over many of their principalities. The Sasanian frontier in the east reached the Amu Darya (Oxus River) during his reign.

He also fought extensively in Armenia and Lazica in the Caucasus. Furthermore, under his reign a Sasanian army conquered Yemen. Khosrau relied on a professional army more than his predecessors, who had summoned feudal levies when they set out to war.

Khosrau was also a great patron of culture, and in 529, when the ancient academy of Athens was closed, a number of Greek philosophers migrated to the Sasanian empire, where they were well received by the ruler. The later famous medical school of Gondeshapur was probably started in Khosrau’s reign, and the famous physician Burzoe is supposed to have been sent to India by Khosrau to gather Sanskrit books of learning to be translated into the Middle Persian language. The game of chess reportedly was also brought by him from India. Astronomy and astrology flourished at the court of Khosrau, and one star table (called the zij-i Shahriyar), which was the basis of many later Islamic tables, is said to have originated during the reign of Khosrau. Several works of Middle Persian, such as the Book of Deeds of Ardashir (Karnamak), are attributed to this period. Likewise, some scholars claim that the codification of the Avesta, the sacred book of the Zoroastrian religion, as well as the creation of a special Avestan alphabet to record the text, took place at the order of Khosrau. Further, it is supposed that the stories and legends of ancient Iran were gathered into a Khwatay-namak (“Book of Kings”) in the time of Khosrau and thus provided the source for Ferdowsi’s immortal epic much later. Some of the names found in Ferdowsī’s Shah-nameh appear among the royal family of Khosrau, which indicates at the least an interest on the part of the monarch in ancient legends.

Perhaps more than fact, the stories told about Khosrau have made his name famous in history. Almost any pre-Islamic structure in Iran whose origin is unknown will be attributed to Khosrau by the common folk. Undoubtedly he built many bridges, roads, and palaces, but much more is assigned to him in legend. The famous palace with the huge arch, called Taq Kisra, in Ctesiphon, near modern Baghdad, is said to date from Khosrau I, but this is uncertain. Several collections of wise sayings of this monarch, as well as stories about him, have been preserved in Arabic or New Persian versions. In them his reputation for justice as well as wisdom is constantly cited. The splendor of the court and the glory of his reign provided models for the later ʿAbbasid court in Baghdad, and many of the institutions established by Khosrau were maintained in Islamic times, when Khosrau was hailed as the model pre-Islamic ruler to be emulated by Muslim princes.

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501: Notable Births - Ichadon

In 501, Ichadon, a Buddhist monk who is credited with making Buddhism the state religion of Korea, was born.

Ichadon (501–527), also known as Geochadon or by his courtesy name Yeomchok or Yeomdo, was a Buddhist monk and advisor to the Silla king Beopheung.

Early in his reign, Beopheung had desired to promulgate Buddhism as the state religion. However, officials in his court opposed him. In the fourteenth year of his reign, Beopheung's "Grand Secretary", Ichadon, devised a strategy to overcome court opposition. Ichadon schemed with the king, convincing him to make a proclamation granting Buddhism official state sanction using the royal seal. Ichadon told the king to deny having made such a proclamation when the opposing officials received it and demanded an explanation. Instead, Ichadon would confess and accept the punishment of execution, for what would quickly be seen as a forgery.

Ichadon prophesied to the king that at his execution a wonderful miracle would convince the opposing court faction of Buddhism's power. Ichadon's scheme went as planned, and the opposing officials took the bait. When Ichadon was executed on the 15th day of the 9th month in 527, his prophecy was fulfilled. The earth shook, the sun was darkened, beautiful flowers rained from the sky. Ichadon's severed head flew to the sacred Geumgang mountains, and milk instead of blood sprayed 100 feet in the air from his beheaded corpse. The omen was accepted by the opposing court officials as a manifestation of heaven's approval, and Buddhism was made the state religion in 527 of the Christian calendar. Ichadon's body was then taken to the Geumgang mountains and buried there with respect. His martyrdom led to the construction of Heungryun monastery, Silla's first state-sponsored temple.

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500: Notable Deaths - Marinus

Marinus, the author of a biography of Proclus (a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher and one of the last major Classical philosophers), died.

Marinus was a Neoplatonist philosopher born in Flavia Neapolis (modern Nablus), Palestine around 450 C.C. He was probably a Samaritan, or possibly a Jew.

Marinus came to Athens at a time when, with the exception of Proclus, there was a great dearth of eminent men in the Neoplatonist school. It was for this reason rather than for any striking ability of his own that he succeeded to the headship of the school on the death of Proclus in 485.

During this period, the professors of the old Greek religion suffered persecution at the hands of the Christians and Marinus was compelled to seek refuge at Epidaurus.

Marinus' chief work was a biography of Proclus, the chief source of information on Proclus' life. The publication of the biography is fixed by internal evidence to the year of Proclus's death. Marinus' biography of Proclus was first published with the works of Marcus Aurelius in 1559. It was republished separately by Fabricius at Hamburg in 1700, and re-edited in 1814 by Boissonade with emendations and notes. He is also the author of a commentary on the Data of Euclid.

Other philosophical works are attributed to Marinus, including commentaries on Aristotle and on the Philebus. Marinus died in 500 AD, possibly in Athens.

500: Notable Deaths - Zu Chongzhi

*Zu Chongzhi, a Chinese mathematician known for his calculations of pi, died.

Zu Chongzhi, [Wade-Giles Tsu Ch’ung-chih] (b. 429, Jiankang [modern Nanjing, Jiangsu province], China - d. 500, China), was a Chinese astronomer, mathematician, and engineer who created the Daming calendar and found several close approximations for pi.

Like his grandfather and father, Zu Chongzhi was a state functionary. Around 462 he submitted a memorandum to the throne that criticized the current calendar, the Yuanjia (created by He Chengtian [370–447]), and proposed a new calendar system that would provide a more precise number of lunations per year and take into consideration the precession of the equinoxes. His calendar, the Daming calendar, was finally adopted in 510 through the efforts of his son, Zu Geng.

Li Chunfeng (602–670) called Zu Chongzhi the best mathematician ever and gave him credit for three approximations of π: 22/7, 355/113, and the interval 3.1415926 < π < 3.1415927; the third result remained the best in the world until improved by the Arab mathematician al-Kashi (flourished c. 1400). Zu also worked on the mathematical theory of music and metrology, and he constructed several devices, such as a semi-legendary “south-pointing carriage” (most likely a mechanical device that kept a pointer in a fixed position); the carriage was topped by a symbolic figure that, once properly aligned, would always point to the south. None of his writings has survived.